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Clinical Chemistry 49: 1450-1457, 2003; 10.1373/49.9.1450
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(Clinical Chemistry. 2003;49:1450-1457.)
© 2003 American Association for Clinical Chemistry, Inc.

Molecular Diagnostics and Genetics

Prognostic Value of Multiple Reverse Transcription-PCR Tyrosinase Testing for Circulating Neoplastic Cells in Malignant Melanoma

Jolanta Szenajch1,a, Bogdan Jasinski5, Agnieszka Synowiec1, Jadwiga Kulik3, Malgorzata Chomicka2, Jerzy Struzyna2, Zbigniew Nowecki4, Piotr Rutkowski4, Wlodzimierz Ruka4, Witold Kupsc5, Janusz A. Siedlecki3 and Wieslaw Wiktor-Jdrzejczak6

Departments of
1 Oncology and
2 Reconstructive Surgery, Military Institute of Medicine, Szaserów 128 Street, 00-909 Warsaw, Poland.
3 Department of Molecular Biology and
4 Soft Tissue/Bone Sarcoma and Melanoma Department, M. Sklodowska-Curie Memorial Cancer Center–Institute, Roentgena 5 Street, 02-781 Warsaw, Poland.

5 Department of Cardiovascular Diseases Epidemiology and Prevention, National Institute of Cardiology, Alpejska 42 Street, 04-628 Warsaw, Poland.

6 Department of Hematology, Oncology and Internal Diseases, The Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1a Street, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland.

aAddress correspondence to this author at: Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Department of Oncology Military Institute of Medicine, Szaserów 128, 00-909 Warsaw, Poland. Fax 48-22-610-3098; e-mail jolaszen{at}wim.mil.pl.


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Background: The reverse transcription-PCR tyrosinase assay (TYR test) cannot reliably detect malignant melanoma (MM) cells in blood as the cells often circulate at low concentrations. We evaluated the prognostic value of multiple TYR testing, the prognostic significance of individual positive TYR test results (TYR+) in asymptomatic melanoma patients, and whether statistical analysis could help in the interpretation of results of a test that measures phenomena that typically occur below its detection threshold.

Methods: MM patients in stages I-IV (n = 150) underwent multiple testing with the TYR test during the course of their disease. TYR testing was performed as described by Smith et al. (Lancet 1991;38:1227–9). Statistical analyses were performed with the logistic function and t-test procedures.

Results: The relationship between MM stage and the frequency of TYR+ was statistically significant (P = 0.011). Higher frequency of TYR+ in clinically asymptomatic patients after complete resection of the primary tumor was associated with an increased risk of recurrence of MM (prognostic sensitivity, 62%; specificity, 78%).

Conclusions: A single positive TYR test provides a warning for disease relapse, suggesting that multiple TYR testing might provide more reliable predictions of disease progression. Multiple testing and statistical analysis using a logistic function might allow for the interpretation of apparently inconsistent results of tests for very rare cells.


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
In melanoma patients, tumor cells in the circulation can be detected by a test developed by Smith et al. in 1991 (1). This assay is based on the identification of the tyrosinase transcript in the blood by reverse transcription (RT)1 /nested-PCR. Tyrosinase, a key enzyme in melanin biosynthesis, undergoes expression in both healthy melanocytes and melanoma cells. Healthy melanocytes do not circulate in the peripheral blood; therefore, the detection of the tyrosinase transcript in peripheral blood indicates the presence of circulating melanoma cells (CMCs). This assay will hereafter be called the TYR test. The TYR test is able to detect one melanoma cell in up to 10–15 mL of peripheral blood (2), with 5 mL being the average (3), which makes it the most sensitive test available for this purpose (4).

The results of studies of malignant melanoma (MM) with use of TYR tests, performed by dozens of research groups since 1991, are extremely variable (5). The reported frequencies of patients with positive TYR test results range between 0% and >30% in local disease (stages I and II) and between 0% and 100% in metastatic disease (stages III and IV) in different studies (6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18).

These results constitute the basis for the assumption that no generalizations can be made concerning the prognostic value of the TYR test. In the majority of published studies, results indicated that TYR-positive patients have a higher risk of recurrence of disease (7)(9)(10)(11)(14)(15)(17)(19)(20)(21) and a lower probability of overall survival (8)(11)(18)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24). However, other investigators raised doubts concerning the clinical value of monitoring MM progression with use of the TYR test because they found no relationship between positive TYR results and disease-free and overall survival (13)(17)(25)(26)(27)(28).

In our 5-year study, in common with other authors, we have experienced extreme variability in TYR test results in staging, prognosis, and evaluating the effects of different therapies (29)(30). We recently provided an explanation for this variability by demonstrating that it is attributable to low concentrations of CMCs in the peripheral blood [more than 10-fold below the detection threshold of the assay (31)]. In such a situation, the error would be so high that it would make the evaluation of prognostic significance of an individual test result meaningless. Because the TYR test already detects the minimum possible number of cells in the evaluated sample, i.e., one, there are only two theoretical way to increase its detection rate: (a) significantly increasing the sample volume above 5 mL; and (b) evaluating multiple samples from the same patient.

Using the second approach, we previously demonstrated that, in fact, CMCs are more often detected in more advanced melanoma than in less advanced disease (31). The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether this approach might be of value in predicting the prognosis of melanoma patients. If a positive answer were arrived at, our approach would be of value not only for the interpretation of TYR test results, but also for the interpretation of other tests of a similar nature that are designed to detect extremely rare cells.


   Materials and Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
patients
A total of 178 individuals were investigated with use of the TYR test. These individuals included 20 healthy donors and 8 patients with widespread tumors other than MM (chronic lymphocytic leukemia, lymphoma, synovioma malignum, glioblastoma multiforme, breast cancer, colorectal carcinoma, and bladder carcinoma), who served as negative controls, and 150 patients with histologically confirmed MM. The clinical stage of melanoma was defined according to modified American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) guidelines (32) valid at the time of the study initiation, i.e., 1994. Consequently, in a majority of cases, in the primary tumors only the Clark classification was evaluated without thickness and ulceration, lymphatic mapping and sentinel node biopsies were not performed, and the serum lactic dehydrogenase concentration was not always evaluated.

For these reasons we could not use the new staging system for cutaneous melanoma that was introduced in 2002 (32)(33)(34)(35). The characteristics of the melanoma patients are listed in Table 1 .


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  		Table 1. Characteristics of the melanoma patients.

In all MM patients, primary lesions were surgically excised. The extent of microinvasion through the layers of the dermis was determined by the Clark and/or Breslow classification systems (36)(37). Patients were periodically evaluated by standard procedures, including physical examination and the assessment of all measurable disease by x-ray, ultrasonography, and computerized tomography. Metastases in lymph nodes were surgically excised in most cases. Visceral metastases were in most cases unresectable. The majority of patients were treated systemically by chemo-, immuno-, and chemoimmunotherapy.

melanoma and nonmelanoma cell lines
Mew 151, a human melanoma-derived cell line, was established and characterized by Dr. Maria Rochowska at the Cancer Center in Warsaw (Poland).

FlW 180, a wild-type fibroblast cell line, was established at the Cancer Center in Warsaw (Poland), MRC5, a fetal fibroblast cell line, was purchased from Flow Co., and a human colon cancer cell line that is a subline of DETA was a gift from the Cancer Institute in Vienna.

tyr test
Blood samples for the TYR test.
The characteristics of the TYR test study participants are listed briefly in Table 2 .


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  		Table 2. Distribution of patients by disease stage and number of tests per patient of the study.

The protocol for the study with the TYR test was approved by the Institutional Bioethics Review Boards of both the Military Institute of Medicine and the Center of Oncology, and before entering the study, all patients and healthy donors gave informed consent after they had been provided with necessary information about the purpose of blood sampling.

All patients with melanoma who were referred to participating centers were enrolled in the study. Peripheral blood for the TYR test was obtained from patients with different stages of disease. Blood was collected during visits to the hospital associated either with treatment or routine check-ups. The time intervals between consecutive tests performed on patients differed among patients: intervals were longer in asymptomatic patients, shorter in patients undergoing treatment.

Blood preparation and RNA extraction.
For RNA extraction, molecular biology reagents from Sigma were used. We collected 10 mL of blood (two 5-mL samples) from each patient; each 5-mL sample was collected in a tube that contained 125 µL of 0.5 mmol/L EDTA as an anticoagulant. Of the 10 mL of blood obtained from each patient, 5 mL was used for RNA isolation and 5 mL was kept as extra stock for the eventual repetition of RNA isolation. Blood was centrifuged at 400g for 5 min, and the supernatant was decanted. The total RNA was extracted by the method of Chomczynski and Sacchi (38) with some modifications (30). RNA integrity was checked electrophoretically. The RNA concentration and purity were determined by ultraviolet spectrophotometry at 260 and 280 nm. An average of 10–15 µg of total RNA was prepared from 5 mL of blood. The RNA samples were stored at -80 °C until needed.

Nested RT-PCR.
Reactions were performed with the DNA Thermal Cycler (Perkin-Elmer, now Applied Biosystems) and reagents from the Amp® RNA PCR reagent set (Perkin-Elmer). Primers were purchased from the Institute of Hematology and Transfusion Medicine.

The sequences of the primer pair for the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) gene were according to Brossart et al. (39), and the sequences of the two primer pairs (outer, HTYR1 and HTYR2; nested, HTYR3 and HTYR4) for the tyrosinase gene were according to Smith et al. (1). Reverse transcription, PCR I, and PCR II reactions were performed according to the method of Brossart et al. (39). PCR products were analyzed electrophoretically.

For a single reverse transcription reaction, we used 0.5 µg of total RNA. To confirm the presence of amplifiable cDNA, we used 1 µL of the reverse transcription mixture to perform PCR (30 cycles of amplification) with primers specific for GAPDH, a housekeeping gene. The size of the amplified fragment was 319 bp. Samples that failed to give amplified products for GAPDH cDNA were considered not to be informative. Only samples that were positive in this reaction were used for PCR with primers specific for the tyrosinase gene. For the first round of PCR (PCR I; 30 cycles of amplification) with outer primers specific for the tyrosinase gene, we used the remaining 9 µL of the reverse transcription mixture; for the second round of PCR (PCR II; 30 cycles of amplification) with nested primers, we used 1 µL of the PCR I mixture. The size of the amplified fragment after PCR I was 284 bp; after PCR II, it was 207 bp.

In this report, the term "positive result of the TYR test" refers to the positive result after PCR II. Similarly, the statement "negative test" refers to the negative result after PCR II.

Precautions taken to avoid false-positive/-negative results.
The main pitfalls of the TYR test are false-positive and -negative results, the details of which have been described in the literature (5)(19)(23)(40)(41)(42)(43). Precautions to avoid contamination included the use of aerosol-resistant pipette tips and separate rooms and laboratory accessories for blood sampling, RNA isolation, PCR I, PCR II, and the analysis of PCR products. Probes with PCR products were never opened in pre-PCR rooms.

statistical analysis
The database, which incorporated selected variables (age, sex, primary tumor location, stage of disease, treatment, TYR status) was constructed using EPI INFO, Ver. 5 (CDC; www.cdc.gov/epiinfo/). The relationship between MM stage and two explanatory variables, the number of performed TYR tests and the number of obtained positive results, was analyzed by a logistic regression model. Statistical analyses were performed with Statistical Analysis System (SAS) procedures: logistic and t-test. P values <0.05 were considered significant.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
analytical features of the tyr test
In blind control samples, in which water was used instead of RNA, GAPDH and tyrosinase transcripts were absent. In all investigated samples of RNA isolated from the in vitro cultured nonmelanoma cell lines (FlW 180, MCR5, and DETA) and from blood of healthy donors and patients with widespread tumors other than melanoma, GAPDH transcripts were present and tyrosinase transcripts were absent. These samples were also used as negative controls. RNA isolated from the in vitro-cultured melanoma cell line (Mew 151) was found to contain GAPDH and tyrosinase transcripts and was used as a positive control. These internal standards were included in each TYR test round. Selected representative results are shown in Fig. 1 . Because no positive result was obtained among 20 healthy donors and 8 nonmelanoma cancer patients whereas all samples containing Mew 151 cells tested positive, these data were taken to confirm the specificity of the TYR test.



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  		Figure 1. Specificity of the TYR test.

To determine the detection limit of the TYR test, we performed a limiting dilution experiment. Decreasing numbers of Mew 151 cells (105–100) were mixed with 5 mL of blood from a healthy donor, and the RNA was extracted. We found that to obtain a positive band after PCR I, we needed at least 104 Mew 151 cells in the mixture, but even a single cell (individual Mew 151 cells were aspirated with a heat-drawn glass capillary under an inverted microscope) in 5 mL of blood was sufficient to obtain a positive result after PCR II. Selected representative results are shown in Fig. 2 . A blood sample to which 1 Mew 151 cell per 5 mL of blood had been added was included as a sensitivity internal standard in each TYR test round.



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  		Figure 2. Detection limit of the TYR test.

In each TYR test round, the internal standards, comprising negative, positive, and sensitivity control samples, were included. Each round was performed for ~10–15 patients, and during our 5-year study, we performed 55 such rounds. In five rounds (9%), carryover contamination was detected and/or positive controls gave negative results. All results from these false rounds were considered invalid, and the procedure had to be repeated, starting from RNA isolation.

Taking into consideration suggestions (5)(14) of poor reproducibility of TYR tests performed on the same samples, we reviewed our own data. We tested 20 samples twice and 2 samples three times (these 22 samples were derived from 17 different patients with MM). Initially, 11 of these samples tested positive and only 1 was negative in the second testing. Eleven samples tested negative initially, and all were negative in subsequent testing.

relationship between frequency of positive tyr test results and clinical stage of mm
We investigated whether there is a relationship between MM stage and frequency of CMC detection, i.e., whether patients with more advanced disease test positive for CMCs more frequently. This investigation was performed on 150 patients, using the logistic regression model and taking into consideration two explanatory variables: number of all TYR tests performed on a given patient (n), and number of positive results (k) among performed tests.

The association of these two variables with disease stage is statistically significant (P = 0.011). An increase by one of k adjusted for n increases the probability of the examined patient being in stage III or IV [odds ratio (OR), 1.450; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.09–1.98], whereas an increase by one of n adjusted for k increases the probability of the patient being in stage I or II (OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.047–1.317).

The results of this analysis are shown in Fig. 3 . For example, if a given patient was tested 10 times by the TYR test and one positive result was obtained, then the probability that this patient was in stage I or II was 0.66; however, if five positive results were obtained in testing a person 10 times, the probability that she or he was in stage I or II decreased to 0.30 (therefore, in this case the probability that she or he was in stage III or IV was 0.70). In conclusion, the probability of obtaining a low frequency of positive TYR test results is greater in stages I or II and lower in stages III or IV.



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  		Figure 3. Probability of having local disease [P(I + II)] in relation to the total number of performed TYR tests (n) and to the number of positive results (k) on the basis of the logistic regression model.

It could be argued that this relationship between the frequency of positive TYR test results and the clinical stage of MM was additionally influenced by variable time intervals between individual tests performed on given patients. To evaluate this possibility, we introduced to the logistic regression model a third explanatory variable, mean time interval between consecutive TYR tests (t). This analysis was performed on 82 patients who had been tested at least twice in stages I/II and/or III/IV. The association of two variables, n and k, with disease stage was statistically significant (P = 0.016; similar to results for a larger population of 150 patients), but the association of three variables, n, k, and t, with disease stage is only at the borderline of significance (P = 0.051). Moreover, t adjusted for n and k is not statistically significant related to stage of MM (P = 0.500). This analysis suggests that the increased frequency of CMC detection in more advanced disease is statistically significant independent of the mean time interval between consecutive TYR tests in given patients. We have also not found any statistically significant relationship between systemic treatment and CMC detection (data not shown), so we did not take it into consideration in our analyses.

prognostic value of tyr test results based on the logistic regression model
We next attempted to evaluate whether positive TYR test results in clinically asymptomatic patients predict relapse of the disease, i.e., the subsequent appearance of clinically evident metastases. To answer this question we defined the discrimination rule based on the logistic regression model. It was found that the best cut point is the probability level P(I + II) = 0.4 because at this point the percentage of correct assignment to stages I + II and III + IV is the highest (64.0%). "The correct assignment to stage of disease" means the compliance between the clinical classification (according to AJCC classification) and classification according to the logistic regression model. Therefore, in the logistic regression model patients who have P(I + II) >0.4 should be assigned to stages I + II and patients who have P(I + II) <0.4 should be assigned to stages III + IV.

Subsequently, we evaluated a group of 43 patients (17 in stage I, 22 in stage II, and 4 in stage I or II) after complete resection of the primary tumor, clinically free of disease. The time period from resection of primary tumor to first TYR testing varied between 6 months to 10 years. We evaluated the number of TYR+ among all tests performed during 1 year for a given patient and related TYR+ frequency to whether these patients developed clinical disease during this year. All of these patients were tested by the TYR assay at least twice from the beginning of investigation up to the moment of the clinical appearance of metastasis, which ended the TYR test investigation. Sixteen patients developed metastases within 1 year, whereas 27 remained clinically asymptomatic until the end of the year.

The results were superimposed on the logistic regression model of P(I + II) (Fig. 3Up ) and are shown in Fig. 4 . As can be seen, among these 43 patients, who were clinically assigned to stages I + II, 27 patients (above the cutoff of 0.4) were also assigned to this (nonmetastatic disease) category by the discrimination rule described above. On the other hand, 16 patients (below the cutoff of 0.4) also assigned clinically to stages I + II were assigned to stages III + IV by the discrimination rule. Among 27 patients with P(I + II) >0.4, only 6 patients (22%; indicated by plus signs in Fig. 4 ) developed metastatic disease during the year, whereas among 16 patients with P(I + II) <0.4, altogether 10 patients (62%; indicated by plus signs in Fig. 4 ) developed metastatic disease during the year. Although the group tested was not very large and these frequencies are not dramatically different, the data suggest that this type of modeling allows the prediction of development of metastases in patients with local disease with moderate but defined probability. In this model, the TYR test achieved 62% sensitivity and 78% specificity, and 72% of prognoses were accurate (Table 3 ). The result of {chi}2 test (P = 0.008) confirmed the statistically significant advantage of accurate over inaccurate prognoses.



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  		Figure 4. Data for 43 clinically asymptomatic patients tested with the TYR test superimposed on the logistic regression model of P(I + II) shown in Fig. 3Up .

•, patients who did not develop metastases later; , patients who later developed metastases.


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  		Table 3. Evaluation of the possibility of metastatic MM development during 1 year in patients considered to have only local disease [P(I + II) >0.4] compared with patients assigned to stage III + IV [P(I + II) <0.4] on the basis of the logistic regression model.1


   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
This study represents an attempt to solve the problem of interpreting the results of a diagnostic test when measuring an analyte that occurs naturally at concentrations well below the lower detection threshold. This is the situation for most PCR tests that are used to detect and to evaluate minimal residual disease and the earliest phase of relapse of malignancy. The use of quantitative PCR does not solve this problem because it differentiates between different values of positivity of the test and does not allow evaluation of results below zero. Frequently, PCR negativity is considered an operational equivalent of complete eradication of disease. Our previous results have shown that this may not be the case, at in least some tumors, such as MM, where the number of cells released to the peripheral blood may be limited to between a few and a few hundred, with a lowest detection threshold of ~1000 in the entire peripheral blood. (Humans have ~5000 mL of blood; therefore, the detection of one cell in a 5-mL sample represents 1000 cells in the total blood volume.) The extreme variability of individual TYR test results in MM has prompted several authors to question its diagnostic and prognostic value as well as its biological significance (13)(17)(25)(28). Our previous (31) and current studies have demonstrated that testing each patient several times and then applying methods of statistical analysis to the interpretation of the results is a useful approach to this problem. Using this approach, we could demonstrate all of the phenomena classically expected from diagnostic testing, including (a) increased frequency of positive testing in more advanced disease, and (b) increased risk of relapse in patients testing positive more frequently. By reciprocity, it may be suggested that each positive TYR test increases the risk of clinically evident disease progression, whereas a negative TYR test requires repeat testing.

We hypothesize that, most probably, similar conclusions could be reached in the case of MM by increasing the volume of the sample tested to 50–100 mL. Unfortunately, it was not possible to test this hypothesis in our study because in Poland patients rarely permit the drawing of more than 10 mL of blood on one occasion; there is potential to test it in other circumstances, however. The same reasoning could be applied to other, similar analyses of types of cell that appear in peripheral blood with even lower frequency. An example would be testing peripheral blood for cells that appear with the frequency of 10–20 cells/5000 mL of blood. For such cases, multiple testing would be the only available technical option.

Although our study has tested the hypothesis that melanoma cells are present in the circulation at a frequency well below the detection threshold, another hypothesis is possible, as suggested by Reinhold et al. (13), who first multiple-tested individual melanoma patients. These authors tested blood samples taken at several-hour intervals from three patients with visceral metastases (five blood samples from each patient) and found that in two cases the same person was negative in some tests and positive in the others. They suggested that these results might be attributable to the intermittent release of melanoma cells from primary or secondary tumors to the blood. Our data are insufficient to make a decision between these two hypotheses, but the results of Reinhold et al. (13) could equally well be explained by our hypothesis.

Several other groups have attempted to test each patient multiple times (10)(14)(15)(17)(20)(21)(22)(24)(27)(28)(44), but no analysis of discrepancies between the results of repeated tests was performed. At best, the finding of at least one positive result among several tests performed in different time intervals was used to classify the patient as testing positive (10)(20)(21)(22)(24) Alternatively, patients were classified as positive or negative based on the prevailing test results for two blood samples drawn in the same time interval from a given patient (14).

As has been mentioned, on the basis of the present results a positive TYR test has adverse prognostic significance, and patients testing positive even once should be considered to be at increased risk of disease relapse/progression. It is much more difficult to interpret multiple negative results. From our previous study (31), it appears that >10 consecutive negative TYR tests are necessary to consider a given patient as being free of disease with a sufficient degree of confidence to provide a guarantee of the patient’s safety. Although this result is supported by statistical analysis, using it as the basis for a testing procedure might create practical obstacles because it would increase the cost of testing and requires several visits on the part of the patient.

In our study we evaluated the issue of whether the presence or absence of circulating melanoma cells, as indicated by the TYR test alone, has prognostic value. We based our evaluation on the assumption that the more aggressive neoplasia is, the more likely it is that neoplastic cells would be present in the peripheral blood. However, an alternative approach is also possible, which hinges on the possible use of neoplasia-related markers such as MAGE, BAGE, and GAGE and not simply pigment cell-specific markers such as tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein-1 and -2, MART1/MelanA, pMel-17, gp100, and p97 (7)(10)(45)(46)(47)(48). Although this was not the subject of the current study, the use of such an approach in future investigations of the problem may complement the conclusions drawn from the results of the present experiments.

In summary, our data suggest that previous apparent inconsistencies in TYR testing were attributable to the highly significant, not yet fully appreciated, fact that this test measures a marker with typical values well below the lowest detection threshold in a single testing. Multiple repeated testing (or in some cases testing with larger blood volumes) could alleviate these drawbacks and permit more reproducible interpretation of the test results.


   Acknowledgments
 
We thank Ewa Babiej for collection of patient samples, Dr. Adam Kruszewski for cultures of cell lines, and Dr. Julita Korczynska, Wojciech Szenajch, and Piotr Korczynski for help with computer graphics. This study was supported in part by the State Committee for Scientific Research (KBN Grants 4 P05B 059 09 to W.W-J. and 4 PO5B 109 13 to J.A.S.) and Statutory Funds awarded to the Department Hematology, Oncology, and Internal Diseases, The Medical University of Warsaw.


   Footnotes
 
1 Nonstandard abbreviations: RT-PCR, reverse transcription-PCR; CMC, circulating melanoma cell; TYR test, RT-PCR tyrosinase assay; MM, malignant melanoma; AJCC, American Joint Committee on Cancer; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; OR, odds ratio; and CI, confidence interval.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

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