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Clinical Chemistry: A Journal Timeline |
1 Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics, Wadsworth Center for Laboratories and Research, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, and Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York, Albany, NY.
*Address for correspondence. Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics, Wadsworth Center for Laboratories and Research, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY 12201-0509. Fax 518-474-9185; e-mail bob{at}wadsworth.org.
Abstract
The establishment of the modern discipline of clinical chemistry was concurrent with the foundation of the journal Clinical Chemistry and that of the American Association for Clinical Chemistry in the late 1940s and early 1950s. To mark the 50th volume of this Journal, I chronicle and highlight scientific milestones, and those within the discipline, as documented in the pages of Clinical Chemistry. Amazing progress has been made in the field of laboratory diagnostics over these five decades, in many cases paralleling—as well as being bolstered by—the rapid pace in the development of computer technologies. Specific areas of laboratory medicine particularly well represented in Clinical Chemistry include lipids, endocrinology, protein markers, quality of laboratory measurements, molecular diagnostics, and general advances in methodology and instrumentation.
This year, Clinical Chemistry turned 50 (1). Our 50th volume continues to do what we have done best each year since Volume 1—to present the latest developments in medical laboratory technology, applications, and practices. However, in tribute to our semicentenary, we would be remiss, as we close the year, if we did not also reflect on this Journal’s published achievements over the past five decades. Having a journal title that is eponymous with the field that it covers can be the cause of some confusion; at times, even we involved in its production refer to it as "Clinical Chemistry Journal". However, the two entities are intertwined, and in a not insignificant way, the Journal has helped to define the field over the past five decades. We are, of course, not the only publication that covers the discipline, and many important developments and advances have been published in other periodicals. Still others appeared in the realm of intellectual property through patents.
In this overview, I have selected numerous highlights and representative articles illustrating advances in the practice of clinical chemistry as they appeared in the pages of this Journal, and I have placed them in historical perspective by juxtaposing them with contemporaneous events in the broader world. I was guided by both the citation frequency of papers that had significant impact and opportunities that a paper provided to exemplify developments in technology, instrumentation, and medicine of the day. This journal timeline is not intended to be a detailed history of the Journal, as many facets of our heritage have already been reported (2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12).
In reviewing nearly 100 000 pages of the journal, I was again struck by how much has changed, yet how much has remained the same (1). Over the years, many papers were devoted to general topics still very much of interest to our readers today: lipids, endocrinology, protein markers, quality of results, and advances in methodology. Of course, much has also gone the way of high-button shoes and 5¢ coffee, such as thymol flocculation tests and measurement of protein-bound iodine. The development of the field of laboratory diagnostics can be seen in tracing the evolution of figures within papers, from the large number of photographs and hand-drawn diagrams of glassware that were characteristic of the first years of publication to displays of results from devices, rather than the devices themselves. I was occasionally amused by the now-quaint spellings of "technic" and "computor", as well as the liberal use of the plural "serums". The AACC annual meeting played a central role over the years, with names of speakers, awardees, and their abstracts and biographies printed as regular or supplemental pages. Review of those entries will help to further document the interesting topics of the day, as well as to uncover such—today politically incorrect—entries as "ladies programs". Those days, however, also boasted hotel rooms with daily rates of $7.50 in Santa Monica and $8.50 in Boston; "charming" pictures of meeting venues also graced our pages.
Many of today’s efforts at standardization and harmonization were more than foreshadowed in several seminal papers appearing in this Journal during the 1960s and 1970s; perhaps if more attention had been paid to these papers when they were published three or four decades ago, current standardization efforts might not be so necessary, or at least not so difficult and costly in their implementation. Another theme that often appeared was the role of the profession of medical laboratorians and relationships among professional societies; some of the rhetoric makes for more-than-interesting reading that borders on voyeurism. The give and take in correspondence regarding various view points on the various issues of the day (13) also seemed to contain far more spleen than the tamer exchanges that are encountered today. Nonetheless, it betrays an enthusiasm that can be admired whichever side one might have supported.
I was also struck by the specific "personality" of the journal under each of its three editors as it evolved and developed. Although they appeared on our mastheads under differing titles, their role clearly match that of "Editor-in-Chief" in other publishing circles. It may be happenstance that their tenures were contemporaneous with reasonably defined advances and achievements in the field: "Managing Editor" Appleton (1955–1969) with the period establishing the discipline as we know it today and with the automation of classical chemistry procedures; "Executive Editor" King (1970–1990) coincided with advances in immunoassay, computer-assisted techniques, and new instrumentation; and our current adjectiveless "Editor" Bruns (1991-) has been coeval with applications of molecular biology and evidence-based medicine. The journal has benefited greatly from the occupancy of the Editor’s chair by these three; a history of the Journal’s leadership appears elsewhere (12).
Another theme that emerged in my review was the rapidity with which clinically useful procedures put major scientific discoveries to use. There are many methods and clinical applications described in our pages that swiftly followed the publication of major biomedical findings (many of which led to Nobel Prizes). The first research papers describing the structure of hemoglobins, immunoassays, HPLC, GC/MS, monoclonal antibodies, PCR, MS/MS, etc. were followed in very short order by a multitude of applications of the knowledge in our pages.
Predicting the future is tricky business. In 1967, a US Senate Subcommittee reportedly heard testimony forecasting that, by 1985, Americans would work 22 hours each week, 27 weeks a year, or that they would retire at age 38 (14). If only that had come to pass! On the other hand, some true visionaries got it just about right. "I have not been reading science fiction," wrote David Seligson in 1962, on the future of clinical chemistry in these pages (15). He continues:
The time will come when blood is sent from a hospital to a large receiving center—that is, a laboratory which does large numbers of special analyses automatically and continually, day and night, weekends and holidays ... special instruments can sort, analyze, punch out answers, and return reports. Even the latter, the report, will probably disappear in our new way of life because we shall have instruments which identify samples, analyze them, and electronically enter the result into a computer. The latter could be as much as 100 miles away.... Our laboratory instruments will feed the data into the computer and the computer will convert it to a final report and store the information.
A physician who wishes to know the electrolyte values for his patient will not call the laboratory, he will tell the computer what he wants and the computer will direct a typewriter which will give him the information at the rate of 1000 lines per minute. The same information can be requested 10 times in one hour without irritating the laboratory secretaries or anyone else. Furthermore, the laboratory will also have a computer outlet so that serial data on any patient can be observed for fluctuations. The clinical chemist will be able to get any information he needs in seconds without going to his own files or to the record room. There will be no useless files or the wasted effort of unnecessary searches. The computer will not lose data; the intern will not carry the precious report in his pocket where no one can find it. The computer will serve the laboratory in other ways too. It will provide automatic programs and will turn on and off the machines of the laboratory. It will digitalize data and provide direct readout of final answers. It will provide a new dimension for the clinical chemist.
Pretty remarkable insight, considering not all that much in the way of automation existed in medical laboratories four decades ago and that there were only 15 computers in the entire US in 1955, just 7 years before his commentary was written. Admittedly, these prescient comments are rather atypical for our pages; the Journal has generally been filled with factual and useful information that advances our knowledge and profession in an incremental fashion. I was both rather surprised and more than slightly disappointed that there was precious little in the way of extravagant or, even better, dystopic, predictions of "clinical chemistry of the future" to regale the readers of this overview.
As predicted by Seligson over 40 years ago (15), computers have had a powerful role in clinical chemistry, as in most other disciplines. As we look back on 50 years of articles, the advances in laboratory medicine in many ways parallel the spectacular achievements in the semiconductor and computer fields: ever faster/better/cheaper. In the last decade, computers and the Internet have played a dominant role in the dissemination of scientific information. Our Journal was one of the first to embrace these technologies, and it went "online" in 1998 with full content available back to 1997. Abstracts of articles also were accessible for the period 1975–1996, and authors and titles of articles were listed for the period 1965–1974. This too will change. In the very near future, the full content of Clinical Chemistry, from Volume 1, page 1 up to the current issue will be made available online. With this occurrence of a totally electronic version, I take a fair degree of gratification in imagining that I may well be the last person to have browsed through all 50 years of Clinical Chemistry in its 200-kg paper incarnation (Fig. 1
). Although librarians, and atavists of all ages, may bemoan the eventual demise of the medium of choice for the past few hundred years, I shall not be among them. This project has more than reinforced my leanings toward the obsolescence of a very inefficient vehicle for communicating data, ideas, and information. The hundreds of decaying, amber-colored pages that I reviewed also challenge the idea that electronic is ephemeral and that paper is permanent.
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Although large parts of the world remain technologically unconnected, I am confident that access to all of the information in our pages will be facilitated in those regions as a result of these initiatives. Obtaining the paper copy of this, and other, journals is still impossible in many laboratories around the globe. Although Internet access may not be universal, access to the electronic version will be far easier—and less expensive—than is access to the print copy. This Journal, and others, have shown their commitment to wide dissemination of the information in their pages by making content available without charge to institutions in developing countries (16)(17).
The sightings of cyber cafés in remote regions of the planet attest to the view that access to information will be increasingly electronic. In many respects, an even greater "digital divide" exists regarding access to the older literature; if information is not available electronically, it is often ignored. Review of the past 50 years of this journal has underscored for me the importance of the fact that every advance is based on the findings of previous work. Many today may think that use of mass spectrometry for newborn screening is a relatively new application, but this use was already described in 1972 (18). With the electronic republication of the first four decades of Clinical Chemistry, access to many of the seminal articles in the field will be instantly available to all readers.
I hope that the sampling from the Journal in this timeline will inform, and occasionally amuse, and that you will be persuaded to explore the vast archive that is scheduled to be available at your desktop early in 2005.
Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore, So do our min hasten to their end; Each changing place with that which goes before, In sequent toil all forwards do contend.
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Figure 2.
1955
Vol. 1, number 1.
AACC establishes a bimonthly scientific journal—Clinical Chemistry—"to raise the level at which chemistry is practiced in the clinical laboratory; to stimulate the development of new methods for use in the clinical laboratory; to encourage those engaged in this field to pursue advanced studies so as more effectively to render service to the public; and to create and maintain a forum where clinical chemists may exchange ideas and information concerning their scientific, technical and professional problems." The first volume comprises some 430 pages.
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Mediterranean diet and blood lipids.
A multinational study of the effects of diet on serum lipid concentrations suggests the benefits of a Mediterranean diet. The authors understatedly—but correctly—infer that the mechanisms by which diet affects blood lipids "must be complex". Keys A, et al. Effects on diets on blood lipids in man: particularly cholesterol and lipoproteins.
Clin Chem 1955;1:34-52.[Abstract]
Serum lipids and atherosclerosis.
A variety of techniques, including ultracentrifugation, chemical treatment, and electrophoresis, are applied to separate serum lipoproteins. "Their distinctive patterns are correlated with ... atherosclerosis". Adlersberg D, et al. Electrophoresis and monomolecular layer studies with serum lipoproteins.
Clin Chem 1955;1:18-33.[Abstract]
Brown RK, et al. Serum lipoproteins: chemical and enzymatic studies.
Clin Chem 1955;1:83-92.[Abstract]
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Blood gases measured in 0.1 mL.
Blood gas measurements are made even on sample from a fingertip puncture. Natelson S, Menning CM. Improved methods of analysis for oxygen, carbon monoxide, and iron on fingertip blood.
Clin Chem 1955;1:165-179.[Abstract]
Singer RB, et al. Simultaneous determination of pH, CO2 content, and cell volume in 0.1 mL aliquots of cutaneous blood: a modification of the Shock and Hastings technic.
Clin Chem 1955;1:287-316.[Abstract]
Reference material for hemoglobin.
A standard reference material is proposed for hemoglobin measurements. Materials, prepared by Dr. David Drabkin will be "distributed without charge to clinical laboratories". Cannan RK. Proposal of the distribution of a certified standard for use in hemoglobinometry.
Clin Chem 1955;1:151-156.[ISI][Medline]
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Total income of AACC for 1955 is $7464.20; membership stands at 629 (
Clin Chem 1955;1:422-424.
)
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1956
The role of serum lipoproteins in atherogenesis is at an early stage of development, and new analytical tools are described. The analytical variation of the newly described methods is said to be lower than "spontaneous intraindividual variability". Anderson JT, et al. Cholesterol in serum and lipoprotein fractions: its measurement and stability.
Clin Chem 1956;2:145-159.[Abstract]
Carr JJ, Drekter IJ. Simplified rapid technic for the extraction and determination of serum cholesterol without saponification.
Clin Chem 1956;2:353-368.[Abstract]
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Not exactly stat.
Blood pH determinations are suggested to be made by collecting the specimen under mineral oil, cooling to room temperature, and performing the determination under oil on the separated serum. Natelson S, Tietz N. Blood pH measurement with the glass electrode: study of venous and fingertip blood.
Clin Chem 1956;2:320-327.[Abstract]
And we think that CLIA’88 limits are too broad.
An international external quality control/proficiency survey organized by IFCC reveals that laboratory results for one specimen exceed ranges of 90 to 142 mmol/L for sodium and 90 to 170 mg/dL for glucose. Distribution of materials "calibrated for the content of various constituents by suitable reference laboratories" is suggested as a mechanism to improve quality of laboratory results. Wootton IDP. International biochemical trial 1954.
Clin Chem 1956;2:296-301.[Abstract]
Paper tiger.
Serum proteins can be separated and quantified by paper electrophoresis. Laurell CB, et al. Buffer composition in paper electrophoresis: considerations on its influence, with special reference to the interaction between small ions and proteins.
Clin Chem 1956;2:99-111.[Abstract]
Wurm M, Epstein FH. Quantitative electrophoresis of serum proteins on paper.
Clin Chem 1956;2:303-319.[Abstract]
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A tube-air extractor allows superior measurement of urinary estrogens. Five extractions, each of 45 min, are required. Anker RM. Urinary estrogens in pregnancy: improved method for their determination in humans. Clin Chem 1956;2:184-187.[Abstract]
Price fixing?
A pricing structure of $60 per month per physician for unlimited laboratory testing is criticized for having the potential to mass-produce analyses and to lead to work of poor quality as well as the temptation to over-order unneeded tests.
Clin Chem 1956;2:453-454.
AACC Hosts the International Congress on Clinical Chemistry, 9–14 September 1956, in New York, and Clinical Chemistry publishes the abstracts (
Clin Chem 1956;2:225-295and 383–93.
). Hot topics of the day: spectrophotofluorometry—a new tool at the submicrogram level; fractionation of lipoprotein cholesterol by paper electrophoresis; standardization; application of enzymes to the measurement of glucose. Leonard Skeggs introduces a "flowing stream" automatic analyzer "allowing 20 to 30 analyses per hour".
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1957
Less is more.
A flurry of published activity on reducing sample size: micro and ultra-micro methods are reported for numerous analytes. The unit "µL", however, is used sparingly. Sanz MC. Ultramicro methods and standardizations of equipment.
Clin Chem 1957;3:406-419.
Carpenter KJ, et al. Estimation of total cholesterol in serum by a micro method.
Clin Chem 1957;3:233-238.[Abstract]
Stoner RE, Weisberg HF. Ultramicro method for serum bilirubin by diazo blue reaction.
Clin Chem 1957;3:22-36.[Abstract]
Kingsley GR, Getchell G. Test tube extraction method for the microdetermination of urinary 17-ketosteroids.
Clin Chem 1957;3:624-631.[Abstract]
Galloway LS, et al. Micro determination of cholesterol by use of 0.04 mL of serum blood.
Clin Chem 1957;3:226-232.[Abstract]
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QC for me.
"[It] seems very likely that many more laboratories will organize their own systems of quality control within their own walls. There is also every indication that more countries are about to commence schemes of issuing certified samples". Wootton ID. Standardization in clinical chemistry.
Clin Chem 1957;3:401-405.
Dry with a twist.
The first routine application of reagents in a dry chemistry strip also introduces an enzyme catalyzed reaction: glucose oxidase replaces the widespread alkaline copper reduction test. Free AH, et al. Simple specific test for urine glucose.
Clin Chem 1957;3:163-168.[Abstract]
My Hb.
Less than a decade after Pauling discovered the nature of the heterogeneity of hemoglobins, a routine electrophoretic method is published for the identification of six human hemoglobins. Goldberg CA. Identification of human hemoglobins.
Clin Chem 1957;3:1-19.[Abstract]
Huisman TH. The properties, estimation methods, hematologic features, and some other more general aspects of different abnormal human hemoglobins.
Clin Chem 1957;3:371-393.
Cl & CF.
The electrical conductivity of sweat is shown to be a sensitive and specific test for identification of patients with cystic fibrosis. Licht TS, et al. Measurement of the electrical conductivity of sweat: its application to the study of cystic fibrosis of the pancreas.
Clin Chem 1957;3:37-48.[Abstract]
Quantitative methods for the routine analysis of 17-ketosteroids and catecholamines. Kafka MS, Bondy PK. Total neutral 17-ketosteroids: clinical method for measurement.
Clin Chem 1957;3:178-184.[Abstract]
Gray I, Young JG. Epinephrine and norepinephrine concentrations in plasma of human and rats.
Clin Chem 1957;3:239-248.[Abstract]
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1958
A sensitive fluorometric assay for plasma corticosteroids is developed. Silber RH, et al. Practical procedure for estimation of corticosterone and hydrocortisone
Clin Chem 1958;4:278-285.[Abstract]
Enzymes.
Practical photometric procedures appear. Houchin OB. A rapid colorimetric method for the quantitative determination of copper oxidase activity (ceruloplasmin).
Clin Chem 1958;4:519-523.[Abstract]
Lazaroni JA. The stability of lactic dehydrogenase in serum.
Clin Chem 1958;4:379-381.[Abstract]
Schneider AJ, Willis MJ. Sources of variation in a standardized and a semimicro procedure for the spectrophotometric assay of serum glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase concentration.
Clin Chem 1958;4:392-408.[Abstract]
Sheperd HG, McDonald HJ. Electrophoretic migration pattern of serum glutamic oxalacetic transaminase.
Clin Chem 1958;4:13-21.[Abstract]
Dawn of automation.
"THE CLINICAL CHEMIST in charge of a routine biochemistry laboratory appears to be faced with an insoluble dilemma. At a time when there is an increasing demand from the medical profession for more biochemical tests per patient, which would seem to require the use of microprocedures, he finds it almost impossible to obtain personnel with the requisite technical skill. One way out of this dilemma would appear to be the use of completely automatic technics ... the use of this kind of automation would solve the problem ... in the larger laboratories". Saifer A, et al. Rapid system of microchemical analysis for the clinical laboratory.
Clin Chem 1958;4:127-141.[Abstract]
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Simple in 1958!
Serum ethanol is measured by a procedure requiring steam distillation of 5 mL of blood, followed by reaction with dichromate for 45 min at 103 °C. Mather A. A simple determination of blood alcohol for the clinical laboratory.
Clin Chem 1958;4:223-310.
Elementary.
Laboratory capabilities for essential and toxic elements expand. Bachra BN, et al. The complexometric titration of micro and ultramicro quantities of calcium in blood serum, urine, and inorganic salt solutions.
Clin Chem 1958;4:107-119.[Abstract]
Zak B, Ressler N. Serum copper and iron on a single sample.
Clin Chem 1958;4:43-48.[Abstract]
Seligson D, et al. Electrometric method for the determination of chloride in serum and other biological fluids.
Clin Chem 1958;4:159-169.[Abstract]
Nobel S, Nobel D. Determination of mercury in urine.
Clin Chem 1958;4:150-158.[Abstract]
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1959
Folic acid is measured in serum by using Lactobacillus casei.
Baker H, et al. A microbiological method for detecting folic acid deficiency in man.
Clin Chem 1959;5:275-280.[Abstract]
Enzymes as markers.
Progress is made in use of enzymes as markers of human disease. Marsh WH, et al. Adaptation of an alkaline phosphatase method for automatic colorimetric analysis.
Clin Chem 1959;5:119-126.[Abstract]
Bowers GN. Measurement of isocitric dehydrogenase activity in body fluids.
Clin Chem 1959;5:509-518.[Abstract]
Filter paper is used as a sample collection medium and applied to the measurement of phenylalanine, glucose, galactose, and other substances in samples from newborns. Berry HK. Procedures for testing urine specimens dried on filter paper.
Clin Chem 1959;5:603-608.[Abstract]
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Microchemistry.
New systems are developed aimed at automation and reducing sample size. Klein B. A system of clinical chemical analysis.
Clin Chem 1959;5:62-70.[Abstract]
Seligson D. A system of microchemistry for the hospital laboratory designed for maintenance of a high standard of performance.
Clin Chem 1959;5:320-334.[ISI][Medline]
[Order article via Infotrieve]
Cholesterol and age.
Serum cholesterol shown to increase with age. Ackermann PG, et al. Blood lipids in young and old individuals.
Clin Chem 1959;5:100-105.[Abstract]
Epinepherine and norepinephrine are quantified in blood specimens.
Keenan MP, et al. The determination of catechol amines in blood.
Clin Chem 1959;5:239-247.[Abstract]
AACC membership increases by 11% to 830, with members now in 46 of the 49 states. Clin Chem 1959;5:162-163.
Clinical Chemistry at a crossroads.
The role of laboratory professionals and their accreditation and licensure are reviewed, and a position paper is issued; licensure is advocated as the "quality of laboratory service being rendered ... is often poor and at times dangerous".
Clin Chem 1959;5:250-254636–40.
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1960
Little yellow pills.
Within a few years after chlorpromazine was cleared by the FDA as the first antipsychotic drug to be marketed in the US, procedures for the detection of this and other drugs were developed. A simple visual test for detection of antipsychotic drugs is stated to detect drug use for several weeks after administration. Sobolewski G, Nadeau G. A scheme for the rapid identification in urine of commonly used sedatives, hypnotics, and tranquilizers.
Clin Chem 1960;6:153-161.[Abstract]
Forrest IS, Forrest FM. Urine color test for the detection of phenothiazine compounds.
Clin Chem 1960;6:11-15.[ISI][Medline]
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RNase.
A method for ribonuclease offers a detection limit of 1 ng. Correlations with disease states are established. Levy AL, Rottino A. Effect of disease states on the ribonuclease concentration of body fluids.
Clin Chem 1960;6:43-51.[Abstract]
Protein method for glassblowers.
Density gradient electrophoresis separates serum proteins without denaturation. Colehour JK. Separation of serum proteins by density gradient electrophoresis.
Clin Chem 1960;6:485-494.[Abstract]
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Lightly starched.
Sensitive and rapid methods for amylase are described, and the reaction is characterized. Somogyi M. Modifications of two methods for the assay of amylase.
Clin Chem 1960;6:23-35.[ISI][Medline]
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Henry RJ, Chiamori N. Study of the saccharogenic method for the determination of serum and urine amylase.
Clin Chem 1960;6:434-452.[Abstract]
Marsters RW, et al. A micromethod for the determination of plasma amylase.
Clin Chem 1960;6:130-139.[Abstract]
On steroids.
New methods are more rapid and require less sample for the quantification of steroids. Rappaport F, et al. A rapid method for the estimation of urinary 17-ketosteroids.
Clin Chem 1960;6:16-22.[Abstract]
Dingman JF, et al. Glass-fiber paper chromatography of adrenal and gonadal steroids.
Clin Chem 1960;6:228-232.[ISI][Medline]
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Take one and call in the morning.
Reagents for the determination of alkaline phosphatase are commercially available in a single stabilized tablet (PhosphaTABS). Klein B, et al. Rapid method for the quantitative determination of serum alkaline phosphatase.
Clin Chem 1960;6:269-275.[Abstract]
Dawn of the nuclear age.
Gaebler OH, et al. Study of the determination of heavy water in plasma or urine.
Clin Chem 1960;6:549-557.[Abstract]
Natelson S, et al. X-ray spectroscopy in the clinical laboratory.
Clin Chem 1960;6:299-313.[Abstract]
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1961
Acid/Base.
Further advances are made in the determination of blood gases and electrolytes. Astrup P. A new approach to acid-base metabolism.
Clin Chem 1961;7:1-15.[Abstract]
Hendry EB. Osmolarity of human serum and of chemical solutions of biological importance.
Clin Chem 1961;7:156-164.[Abstract]
Reinhold JG, Chung CC. Formation of artifactual ammonia in blood by action of alkali: its significance for the measurement of blood ammonia.
Clin Chem 1961;7:54-69.[Abstract]
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Lipids rise with faster analyses, smaller sample sizes.
Specimens stored on filter paper are first used as samples. Van Handel E. Suggested modifications of the micro determination of triglycerides.
Clin Chem 1961;7:249-251.[Abstract]
Mann GV. A method of measurement of cholesterol in blood serum.
Clin Chem 1961;7:275-284.[Abstract]
Connerty HV, Briggs AR, Easton EH. Simplified determination of the lipid components of blood serum.
Clin Chem 1961;7:37-53.[Abstract]
Abstracts make their appearance in the Journal at the start of each article rather than as a final "Summary" as in earlier volumes.
The roles of the laboratorian and the status of the profession of clinical chemistry were covered extensively in the first 10 volumes of the Journal. Volume 7 had more than its share of coverage, and readers interested in the topics of concern of the day are directed to Clin Chem 1961;7:75-91303–7;421–2.[ISI] for a comprehensive overview.
Move over Dr. Karmen.
The "International Unit" is born as the preferred manner for expressing catalytic activity of enzymes (
Clin Chem 1961;7:199.
).
Serum as a "standard"? Say it isn’t so.
The role of reference materials in the calibration and quality control of laboratory assays is examined. Calibration using serum-based materials is criticized as substituting "compensation" for reliability. Klugerman MR, Boutwell JH. Commercial control sera in the clinical chemistry laboratory.
Clin Chem 1961;7:185-191.[Abstract]
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1962
Can you be more specific?
A more specific chemical method for glucose is introduced. After TCA precipitation of proteins, sample is heated with o-toluidine at 100 °C in glacial acetic acid. Dubowski KM. An o-toluidine method for body fluid glucose determination.
Clin Chem 1962;8:215-235.[Abstract]
Specific determination of serum urea uses urease and subsequent estimation of liberated ammonia. Chaney AL, Marbach EP. Modified reagents for determination of urea and ammonia.
Clin Chem 1962;8:130-132.[Abstract]
Can you be more sensitive?
Cholesterol is measured in 10 µL of serum. Bowman RE, Wolf RC. A rapid and specific ultramicro method for total serum cholesterol.
Clin Chem 1962;8:302-309.[Abstract]
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Don’t take it lying down.
Vertical gel electrophoresis for separation of serum proteins and hemoglobins is done in starch or polyacrylamide media. Raymond S. A convenient apparatus for vertical gel electrophoresis.
Clin Chem 1962;8:455-470.[Abstract]
Raymond S, Nakamichi M. Gel electrophoresis.
Clin Chem 1962;8:471-474.[Abstract]
Punch cards are introduced to simplify laboratory requests and reporting.
Prepunched cards, coded for laboratory tests, are sorted and matched with requisitions. The system "is more efficient, less susceptible to error, and simpler" than other mechanisms. Radin N. A punched-card system for the laboratory.
Clin Chem 1962;8:538-545.[Abstract]
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Prepackaged reagents: threat or menace?
Readers are warned of "automatic reliance upon ... results" of kits; manufacturers are reminded of "serious responsibilities to the public". (
Clin Chem 1962;8:336-337.
).
Clinical Chemistry is now distributed in 60 countries, with >4000 subscribers. The backlog of papers is 10 months (
Clin Chem 1962;8:679.
).
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1963
Not another enzyme method!
Lipase measurement by turbidimetry decreases analysis time from 3 h to 20 min. Vogel WC, Zieve L. A rapid and sensitive turbidimetric method for serum lipase based upon differences between the lipases of normal and pancreatitis serum.
Clin Chem 1963;9:168-181.[Abstract]
Tonks’ formula.
The quality of laboratory testing is examined by use of an approach based on biological variability. Tonks proposes the formula, which will eventually become eponymous, that analytical variability should be less that 25% of biological variability ("1/4 of the normal range"). According to this criterion, more than 40% of 4762 results obtained in an interlaboratory survey are considered unacceptable. Tonks DB. A study of the accuracy and precision of clinical chemistry determinations in 170 Canadian laboratories.
Clin Chem 1963;9:217-233.[Abstract]
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More on urea.
Diacetyl monoxime is used to quantify urea. Coulombe JJ, Favreau L. A new simple semimicro method for colorimetric determination of urea.
Clin Chem 1963;9:102-108.[Abstract]
PBI was a high-volume test.
Protein-bound iodine assays are automated. Stevens CO, Levandoski NG. Automation of protein-bound iodine determination.
Clin Chem 1963;9:400-407.[Abstract]
Benotti J, Benotti N. Protein-bound iodine, total iodine, and butanol-extractable iodine by partial automation.
Clin Chem 1963;9:406-416.
Clinical Chemistry to appear monthly.
The price of subscriptions to the Journal will be increased by $2.00 per year to $8.00 per year to cover anticipated increases in expenses with proposed monthly publication. Julius Sendroy is elected to chair of the Board of Editors as Harold Appleton was named to the new position of Managing Editor (
Clin Chem 1963;9:640-642.
).
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1964
Simultaneous automation.
The first multichannel analyzer to perform eight determinations simultaneously is described. The analyzer records directly on calibrated paper, providing an "immediately usable form". One operator can perform 960 individual tests per day, equal to the output expected per person in a month with manual techniques. Skeggs LT, Hochstrasser H. Multiple automatic sequential analysis.
Clin Chem 1964;10:918-936.[Abstract]
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Calcium and phosphorus: a completely automated flow system.
Kessler G, Wolfman G. An automated procedure for the simultaneous determination of calcium and phosphorous.
Clin Chem 1964;10:686-703.[Abstract]
Tyrosine and phenylalanine method helps to identify newborns with phenylketonuria Wong P, et al. Micromethods for measuring phenylalanine and tyrosine in serum. Clin Chem 1964;10:1098-1104.[Abstract]
Let the cards fall where they may.
A notched card system organizes reprints. Over 800 key words can be used. Weissman N. A punched-card reference system for biochemists.
Clin Chem 1964;10:214-223.[Abstract]
Calcium.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is applied to determination of serum calcium. The method is claimed to be the "method of choice". Zettner A, Seligson D. Application of atomic absorption spectrophotometry in the determination of calcium in serum.
Clin Chem 1964;10:869-890.[Abstract]
Pumping iron.
Few laboratories measure iron and iron binding capacity, as methods have been too complicated for routine use and the insensitivity of the chromogen produces unacceptable imprecision. A new method makes the test practical and accessible. Fischer DS, Price DC. A simple serum iron method using the new sensitive chromogen tripyridyl-s-triazine.
Clin Chem 1964;10:21-31.[Abstract]
E for effort.
A new procedure for routine assay of vitamin E is published, and reference values are established. Martinek RG. Method for the determination of vitamin E (total tocopherols) in serum.
Clin Chem 1964;10:1078-1086.[Abstract]
This is fast?
The Journal changes to monthly format and, "[can] achieve publication within 6–7 months after acceptance". Circulation at 4615. (
Clin Chem 1964;10:1153.
).
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1965
Not just bubbles.
Many tests are adapted to the continuous-flow AutoAnalyzer, but the first automated discrete analyzer is also introduced: the "Robot Chemist". Morgenstern S, et al. An automated p-nitrophenylphosphate serum alkaline phosphatase procedure for the "robot chemist".
Clin Chem 1965;11:889-897.[Abstract]
Morgenstern S, et al. An automated p-nitrophenylphosphate serum alkaline phosphatase procedure for the autoanalyzer.
Clin Chem 1965;11:876-888.[Abstract]
Marsch WH, et al. Automated and manual direct methods for the determination of blood urea.
Clin Chem 1965;11:624-627.[Abstract]
Robinson RL, Watts DT. An automated trihydroxyindole procedure for the differential analysis of catecholamines.
Clin Chem 1965;11:986-997.[Abstract]
Hill JB, et al. An automated procedure for blood phenylalanine.
Clin Chem 1965;11:541-546.[Abstract]
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Fluorometry is applied to several analytes. Brooks L, Olken HG. An automated fluorometric method for determination of lactic dehydrogenase in serum. Clin Chem 1965;11:748-762.[Abstract] Hill JB. Automated fluorometric method for determination of serum calcium. Clin Chem 1965;11:122-130.[Abstract] Sax SM, Moore JJ. Fluorometric measurement of creatine kinase activity. Clin Chem 1965;11:951-958.[Abstract]
Cholinesterase.
A practical method is developed, suitable for screening of patients before anesthesia or after exposure to organophosphates or nerve gas. Garry PJ, Routh JI. A micro method for serum cholinesterase.
Clin Chem 1965;11:91-96.[Abstract]
A punch card system for the storage and retrieval of laboratory data is described. A day’s results required 2000 cards, which were processed in batches at the end of the day. Nonetheless, introduction of the system reduced the turnaround time by 2 h. Peacock AC, et al. Data processing in clinical chemistry.
Clin Chem 1965;11:595-611.[Abstract]
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Glucose again.
A polarographic oxygen sensor is used to measure blood glucose as oxygen is consumed in the reaction catalyzed by glucose oxidase. Kadish AH, Hall DA. A new method for the continuous monitoring of blood glucose by measurement of dissolved oxygen.
Clin Chem 1965;11:869-875.[Abstract]
Electrophoresis on cellulose acetate membranes is used to separate serum proteins, providing better resolution in less time. Kaplan A, Savory J. Evaluation of a cellulose acetate electrophoresis system for serum protein fractionation.
Clin Chem 1965;11:937-942.[Abstract]
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1966
Gee, see.
Gas-liquid chromatography is used for rapid, quantitative, sensitive measurements. Kroman HS, et al. Estrogens in human pregnancy plasma. I. studies with gas chromatography.
Clin Chem 1966;12:670-680.[Abstract]
Berrett CR, McNeil C. The quantitation of major 17-ketosteroid fraction by gas-liquid chromatography.
Clin Chem 1966;12:399-405.[Abstract]
Savory J. Kaplan A. A gas chromatographic method for determination of lactic acid in blood.
Clin Chem 1966;12:559-569.[Abstract]
Profiles in serum.
The biochemical profile is born. Multichannel analyzers allow 10 simultaneous determinations on <1 mL of serum at a rate of 60 specimens per hour. Results appear on five two-pen recorders. "A very high level of preventive maintenance is required continuously." Acceptance by physicians is "enthusiastic". Thiers RE, et al. A multichannel continuous flow analyzer.
Clin Chem 1966;12:120-136.[Abstract]
Bryan DJ, et al. Profile of admission chemical data by multichannel automation: an evaluative experiment.
Clin Chem 1966;12:137-143.[Abstract]
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Assays of enzymes, isoenzymes and enzymatic analyses become more routine. Bowers GN, McComb RB. A continuous spectrophotometric method for measuring the activity of serum alkaline phosphatase. Clin Chem 1966;12:70-89.[Abstract] Morgenstern S, et al. Automated determination of serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase. Clin Chem 1966;12:95-111.[Abstract] Rosenberg JC, Rush BF. An enzymatic-spectrophotometric determination of pyruvic and lactic acid in blood. Clin Chem 1966;12:299-307.[Abstract] Babson AL, et al. Phenolphthalein monophosphate as a substrate for serum alkaline phosphatase. Clin Chem 1966;12:482-490.[Abstract] Bergerman J. Determination of LDH isoenzymes. Clin Chem 1966;12:797-802.[Abstract]
Van Slyke.
Donald D. Van Slyke was awarded the National Medal of Science by President Lyndon B. Johnson. The citation recognized his work as a pioneer in "the exact science of clinical chemistry, a specialized branch of biochemistry, represented by a profession whose members render most important support to clinicians in the diagnostic and prognostic aspects of their work in treating patients."
Clin Chem 1966;12:453.
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A slippery slope?
The trend to purchased reagents accelerates; a policy for "Reagent Sets and Kits" is published (
Clin Chem 1966;12:43-44.
). The semiautomated pipette is devised. "People with little or no background in laboratory work can make accurate pipettings after a short practice period." Harrison NB. Semiautomatic pipetting device (the Governor Pipet) for clinical chemistry procedures.
Clin Chem 1966;12:890-893.[Abstract]
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1967
What is a standard?
A seminal report discussing standards, standardization, reference materials and methods, and definitive methods is published. The report has its origins in the AACC "Committee on Standards and Controls"; many issues are relevant today. Radin N. What is a standard?
Clin Chem 1967;13:55-76.[Abstract]
Continuous monitoring (on paper) when CK was CPK.
Creatine kinase gains acceptance in the diagnosis of disorders affecting skeletal and cardiac muscle. Continuous monitoring of enzyme-catalyzed reactions becomes accepted. Hess JW, et al. Serum creatine phosphokinase: evaluation of a commercial spectrophotometric method.
Clin Chem 1967;13:994-1005.[Abstract]
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Coagulation.
Assays for measurement of coagulation factors and compounds affecting coagulation are published. Swaim WR, Feders MB. Fibrinogen assay.
Clin Chem 1967;13:1026-1028.[Abstract]
Corn M, Berberich R. Rapid fluorometric assay for plasma warfarin.
Clin Chem 1967;13:126-131.[Abstract]
They use enzymes for everything.
Further expansion of enzymes used as reagents, allowing sensitive and specific and rapid assays of metabolic substrates. Marbach EP, Weil MX. Rapid enzymatic measurement of blood lactate and pyruvate; use and significance of metaphosphoric acid as a common precipitant.
Clin Chem 1967;:314-325.
Klinenberg JR, et al. An enzymatic spectrophotometric method for the determination of xanthine and hypoxanthine.
Clin Chem 1967;13:834-846.[Abstract]
Clinical Chemistry’s circulation reaches 5800 ( Clin Chem 1967;13:1103. ).
CLIA’67 becomes law.
President Lyndon B. Johnson is shown congratulating AACC Executive Director David A.H. Roethel on behalf of clinical chemists on its passage.
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1968
The nice thing about standards is that there are so many of them.
Reference and control materials for use in clinical laboratories are characterized, and recommendations are made for their appropriate roles. A stable albumin reference preparation for use as a calibrator is described. Peters T Jr. Proposals for standardization of total protein assays.
Clin Chem 1968;14:1147-1159.[Abstract]
Young DS, Mears TW. Measurement and standard reference materials in clinical chemistry.
Clin Chem 1968;14:929-943.[Abstract]
Logan JE, Allen RH. Control serum preparations.
Clin Chem 1968;14:437-448.[Abstract]
LIMS arrives.
The benefits of a newly implemented laboratory information system include the ability to use punch cards for requisitions and the issuing of patient-summary reports for 12 consecutive days or sets of results. The system was implemented on an IBM 1440 with "a core memory of 8K". Cillo AA. A simplified, economic, working "computer-assisted laboratory information system" (CALIS).
Clin Chem 1968;14:197-207.[Abstract]
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NMR, GC-MS, HPLC, and URINE.
State-of-the art techniques are applied to the determination of urinary constituents. Dean JA. Use of nuclear magnetic resonance in determining molecular structure of urinary constituents of low molecular weight.
Clin Chem 1968;14:326-338.[Abstract]
Creveling CR, et al. Use of dansyl derivatives and mass spectrometry for identification of biogenic amines.
Clin Chem 1968;14:302-309.[Abstract]
Scott CD. Analysis of urine for its ultraviolet-absorbing constituents by high- pressure anion-exchange chromatography.
Clin Chem 1968;14:521-528.
